BY: KRITHIGA NARAYANAN
Krithiga Narayanan is a second-year MA International Relations student and Public Service Fellow at Johns Hopkins SAIS, specializing in governance in Asia. A former journalist from India now pivoting to public policy, she explores the intersections of governance and democracy, focusing on how citizen engagement and institutional design can drive equitable responses to global challenges. At SAIS, she serves as Editor-in-Chief of both the SAIS Observer and the SAIS China Studies Review journals. She recently worked as a Climate Fellow with the Bloomberg Center for Public Innovation at the Boston Mayor's Office. She has worked with international media organizations such as the BBC and DW, and her past reporting fellowships include the CNN–Rockefeller Foundation Global South Climate Reporting Fellowship, IMF, UN RAF and Internews Earth Journalism Network, where she covered sustainability, climate justice, and community resilience.
Introduction
Climate action is slowing down, and this can be seen from recent COP climate conferences. As the world grapples with climate change, the health of our planet and democracies hangs in balance. There has been a significant rise in autocratic tendencies in many countries around the world, with long term implications on geopolitics. Are these two phenomena, decrease in climate action and rise in autocratic tendencies, connected? So far, most scholars have analyzed them in isolation, but understanding the links between them – especially in major carbon emitter countries like India and China – can help us understand steps that can be taken to accelerate climate action.
India is the third largest emitter of carbon dioxide in the world behind China and the United States. India's CO2 emissions in 2023 was 2.8 gigatons, a record high, and a 7% increase from the country's 6.7% economic growth. India’s current climate action metrics is labeled as “highly insufficient” by Climate Action Tracker despite a renewable energy push, as the country still heavily relies on coal to meet its energy demands. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Report, India ranks 108th in the Electoral Democracy index and places in the top 10 autocratizing countries of the last 10 years. In their 2024 report, India remains an “electoral autocracy.” The ruling Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), with Prime Minister Narendra Modi, suppresses freedom of expression, protests against the ruling government’s policies, and intimidation of political opponents and civil societies.
The Fossil Fuel Nexus in India
Since the Narendra Modi-led BJP first came into power in 2014, India’s seen a rapid increase in the use of coal for energy. Despite pushing for renewable energy and pledging net zero carbon emissions by 2070, Modi has continued to expand coal usage in the country. In 2024, India’s coal and lignite production crossed 1 billion tons, and Modi took to X, calling it a “historic milestone for India” that “[reflects] our commitment to ensuring a vibrant coal sector.” This expansion in coal production is a result of the diluting of existing environmental laws. The most important downside is the setback in achieving India’s climate targets. The ash content in domestic Indian coal is between 25% and 45%. Compared to imported coal, where the ash content is 10% to 20%, power plants need to burn more coal to produce power. This, in turn, causes more carbon emissions and fly ash pollution. Until 2020, thermal power plants receiving coal 500 kms or more needed to use coal with below 34% ash content; they also had to wash the coal to make the emissions cleaner. In 2020, the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forest & Climate Change (MOEF&CC) eliminated restrictions on fly ash for power plants and the washing of coal. This put the onus of reducing fly ash content on power plants, rather than producers. According to a study by the Center for Science and Environment, nearly 70% of coal plants did not comply with emission standards at the end of 2022.
India’s coal power reached a record in January 2024, comprising 80% of all electricity generation in the country. Accordingly, electricity generation from coal powered plants also reached a record high in 2024, to nearly 115 terawatt hours, a 10% increase from 2023. In 2023, more than 75% of power generation was coal powered. Similarly, carbon dioxide emissions from coal generation were nearly 104.5 million metric tons in January 2024, also a record high. Conversely, the power from clean energy sources was just 26.6 TWh. At this rate, India is bound to have a significant setback in climate action, a stark contrast to its international commitments to reduce carbon emissions.
Private sector coal producers stand to gain immensely from the dilution of environmental laws in India. In 2020, India opened coal mining in forests, along with a new Environmental Impact Assessment law that speeds up project approvals with lesser compliance. India has also amended the Mines and Mineral Development and Regulation Act of 1957 (MMDR Act), which allows private players to enter coal auctions on previously state-owned coal blocks. Private local or foreign forms can participate in these auctions without prior mining experience, and the resulting coal can be used for any purpose. So far, nearly 91 mines have been auctioned off in this manner. India has also rationalized stamp duty based on mining area and underlying land, without any reference to the mineral value. This allows easy acquisition of pristine forest lands for mining, as about 70% of India’s coal lies in the forested states of Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. These are also home to tribal Adivasi communities who depend on forest land for their livelihoods; in many instances, Adivasi communities have been forcibly and illegally evicted from their villages.
Coal mines have also been developed without local consultation, a violation of the democratic process. Deforestation is also a huge issue in these regions, as large swaths of forest land are wiped out to create open-cast mines. These increase pollution levels, environmental degradation due to pollution, and cause a decrease in the natural tree carbon capture. Forest land in India is decreasing at an alarming rate, especially in coal rich states like Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh. In many of these states, such as Maharashtra, the BJP and its alliances are in power. Out of the 378.21 billion tons of coal reserves in India, nearly 233.26 tons of coal are in states controlled by the BJP.
In the lush Hasdeo Arand forest in Chhattisgarh, more than 400,000 trees are due to be cut down for a coal mine, despite protests by local communities. In Maharashtra, a mine is being developed by private player Adani, despite environmental concerns. The Adani group, with close links to the BJP, is a big stakeholder in the coal industry in many coal-rich Indian states. Adani is the largest coal mining developer and operator in India, and has links to foreign markets. According to customs records, Adani imports low quality coal to India and sells it to state-owned power companies at overpriced rates using offshore intermediaries in Taiwan, Dubai and Singapore. This overpricing causes fuel costs to inflate, burdening Indian consumers and causing severe air pollution and increased carbon emissions. The Chairman, Gautam Adani, is also facing accusations by U.S Authorities for fraud and giving bribes of nearly $265 million to Indian government officials; accusations are so serious that an arrest warrant has been issued. India is also investing heavily in infrastructure to transport coal, planning a $1.5 billion industrial port, along with a state waterways body to transport 12 to 15 million tons by 2030 in Odisha – which has the largest coal reserve at 94.52 billion tons.
Other fossil fuels that play a big role in climate change are oil and gas. India is the third-largest consumer of oil in the world, after China and the United States, with an annual consumption of nearly 249 million tons. India is also the second largest oil importer in the world, and relies heavily on oil imports for its domestic consumption. It imported nearly 87% of its oil in 2023, mainly from Russia and the Persian Gulf, and demand is expected to reach 1.2 million barrels per day by 2030, a stark conflict with its international climate commitments. India is also Asia’s second largest refiner, with 246.90 million metric tons of capacity.
India has traditionally maintained a stance of nonalignment in global issues, but there has recently been a shift in this policy. As Russia faces rising European sanctions after invading Ukraine, it relies heavily on oil exports to India and China. In 2024, India was the largest oil importer from Russia with nearly 2.07 million barrels per day. Between April 1, 2023, to March 31, 2024, India purchased nearly $140 billion worth of discounted oil from Russia, a 56-fold increase from before the invasion of Ukraine. India is then refining this Russian crude oil and exporting it to the European Union, thus helping Russia bypass EU sanctions while making a profit. This highlights the loopholes in the sanction regimes against autocratic nations. In 2023, India became the second-largest exporter of petroleum products, exporting nearly $86.28 billion in refined oil products. The main beneficiaries of these exports is Reliance Industries Limited, a private company headed by billionaire Mukesh Ambani, a close associate of the BJP.
Another beneficiary of these exports is Nayara Energy, in which Russian state-owned oil company Rosneft is a 49.1% stakeholder. They own an oil refinery based in Gujarat, and along with Reliance Industries, have a long term contract with Russia to buy oil. This is in contrast to the Indian government owned refiners, which can only buy them at the spot market. This indicates how private industrial interests benefit more than government owned enterprises. India’s growing nexus with autocratic countries like Russia, which lacks sufficient climate action, points to a rise in autocratic tendencies within India itself, which has a direct impact on global climate action and carbon emissions commitments.
These autocratic dynamics also come into play for energy transition efforts for climate action. One of the critical resources for a just energy transition is an aluminum-based mineral called bauxite, which is used to make solar panels and other clean energy materials. Bauxite deposits are found in only a few countries, including India. Between April and October 2024, India had 13.8 million metric tons of bauxite, a 11.3% increase from the previous fiscal year. The state of Odisha accounts for nearly 51% of India’s bauxite reserves, and in 2023, the BJP-led Odisha government issued a 50-year mining lease for a project in Sijimali hills of Rayagada and Kalahandi districts.
The mining lease has been issued to Vedanta Aluminum, a private player and one of the top donors to the BJP. Under the 5th Schedule of the Constitution, both districts in Odisha are designated for tribal Adivasi communities. The proposed mining project spans 1,549 hectares of land, out of which nearly 699 hectares are forest. In this region, violations of human and constitutional rights of local communities have been recorded. Notably, democratic processes like public hearings for project approvals were not conducted democratically, and included mass arrests and illegal detentions of locals, hindering global efforts towards a just and equitable energy transition.
Conclusion
This article sought to explore how the rise in authoritarian tendencies specific to extractive industries is hindering climate action. Authoritarian tendencies in India are not compatible with climate action, and are largely aligned with the interests of extractive industries. This system enables inefficient energy markets and boosts vested fossil fuel interests, which leaders use to sustain undemocratic regimes and prevent climate action.
As climate change escalates, there have been calls for swift action, with some claiming that authoritarian governments are better equipped to deal with swift action than “slower” democracies. However, lobbying industrial interests in autocratic countries will become even more powerful and unchecked, leading to a climate autocracy. Rights to vote, active and engaged civil society, presence of strong environmental interest groups and activists, international cooperation, and elite competition can make democracies better equipped for stronger climate action than autocracies. For successful climate action, democratic processes that promote collective action with active stakeholder participation, accountability, and transparency is required.
But currently this is lacking in India. It is thus critical to understand which factors promote or hinder climate action in order to implement informed environmental policies. A global solution to climate change requires collective democratic action. As one of the biggest carbon emitters in the world, India cannot allow authoritarianism and extractive industries to play key roles in its energy transition, lest the world stall on climate action.
Bibliography
Arasu, S. (2023, April 6). Coal burning capacity climbs worldwide despite pledges to reduce use. PBS News. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/coal-burning-capacity-climbs-worldwide-despite-pledges-to-reduce-use#:~:text=New%20coal%20plants%20were%20added,all%20new%20coal%20project%20announcements.&text=China%20added%2026.8%20gigawatts%20and,plants%20in%20the%20past%20year
Amnesty International (2016, July 11). India: Government, Coal India sacrificed Adivasi rights in the name of development. Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.nl/actueel/india-government-coal-india-sacrifice-adivasi-rights-in-the-name-of-development
Asia Financial. (2024, October 10). Russia Looks to Boost Coal Exports to Power-Hungry India. Asia Financial. https://www.asiafinancial.com/russia-looks-to-boost-coal-exports-to-power-hungry-india#:~:text=A%20wagon%20is%20loaded%20with,according%20to%20Russia's%20energy%20ministry.
Adani Enterprises (2024). Integrated Coal Management. Adani Enterprises. https://www.adanienterprises.com/en/businesses/integrated-coal-management#:~:text=Footprint,a%20wider%20spectrum%20of%20people.
American Progress. (2023, December 5). These Fossil Fuel Industry Tactics Are Fueling Democratic Backsliding. American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/these-fossil-fuel-industry-tactics-are-fueling-democratic-backsliding/
BBC News. (2021, November 1). COP26: India PM Narendra Modi pledges net zero by 2070. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-59125143.
Burton, M. (2024, November 22). Adani's Australian coal unit faces human rights complaint. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/adanis-australian-coal-unit-faces-human-rights-complaint-2024-11-22/#:~:text=It%20has%20not%20received%20any,Burton;%20Editing%20by%20Lincoln%20Feast.
Climate Action Tracker. (2024, September 22). India: Country Summary. Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/india/.
Climate Action Tracker. (2024, September 27). India: Country Summary. Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/india/
Climate Action Tracker. (2022, November 9). Russian Federation: Country Summary. Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/russian-federation/.
Chitkara, R. (2024, May 10). Under the Surface: Human Rights and Environmental Implications of the Proposed Sijimali Bauxite Mine in Odisha. National Law School of India University. https://www.nls.ac.in/blog/under-the-surface-human-rights-and-environmental-implications-of-the-proposed-sijimali-bauxite-mine-in-odisha/
Chandran, R. (2020, August 11). Land, environment laws diluted as Asia-Pacific nations eye growth. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/world/land-environment-laws-diluted-as-asia-pacific-nations-eye-growth-idUSKCN258002/.
Chandrasekhar, A. (2024, May 12). Q&A: What do India's elections mean for coal communities and climate change?. CarbonBrief. https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/india-coal-mines/index.html
Chitkara, R. (2024, May 10). Under the Surface: Human Rights and Environmental Implications of the Proposed Sijimali Bauxite Mine in Odisha - National Law School of India University. National Law School of India University. https://www.nls.ac.in/blog/under-the-surface-human-rights-and-environmental-implications-of-the-proposed-sijimali-bauxite-mine-in-odisha/.
Das, A. (2024, February 8). Green light for Adani’s Gondkhairi coal mine despite water fears - Adani Watch. Adani Watch. https://www.adaniwatch.org/green_light_for_adani_s_gondkhairi_coal_mine_despite_water_fears
Das, A. (2024, February 8). Green light for Adani's Gondkhairi coal mine despite water fears. Adani Watch. https://www.adaniwatch.org/green_light_for_adani_s_gondkhairi_coal_mine_despite_water_fears
Das, A. (2024, August 5). The details of Adani’s colossal coal-mining agenda. Adani Watch. https://www.adaniwatch.org/the_details_of_adani_s_colossal_coal_mining_agenda
Darian-Smith, E. (2022, April 27). Rising authoritarianism and worsening climate change share a fossil-fueled secret. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/rising-authoritarianism-and-worsening-climate-change-share-a-fossil-fueled-secret-181012.
Deshmane, A. (2024, October 28). Indian coal giants pushed for lax pollution rules while ramping up production. Climate Home News; https://www.facebook.com/ClimateHomeNews/. https://www.climatechangenews.com/2024/10/28/indian-coal-giants-pushed-for-lax-pollution-rules-while-ramping-up-production/#:~:text=The%20Indian%20government%20weakened%20rules,by%20Climate%20Home%20has%20found
Farooquee, N (2025, August 13). The row over 'vote theft' that has shaken Indian politics. BBC. Explained: Why is the opposition protesting against India's election commission?
Global Energy Monitor (2020, May 28). CoalWire. Global Energy Monitor. https://globalenergymonitor.org/coalwire/coalwire-324-may-28-2020/
Human Rights Watch (2020). India: Events of 2020. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/india
IEA. (2024, December 7). Energy-intensive economic growth, compounded by unfavorable weather, pushed emissions up in China and India – CO2 Emissions in 2023 – Analysis. IEA. https://www.iea.org/reports/co2-emissions-in-2023/energy-intensive-economic-growth-compounded-by-unfavourable-weather-pushed-emissions-up-in-china-and-india.
IEA (2023). Coal 2023 Analysis and forecast to 2026. International Energy Agency. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/a72a7ffa-c5f2-4ed8-a2bf-eb035931d95c/Coal_2023.pdf
IEA.(2022). Where does India get its coal?. IEA. https://www.iea.org/countries/india/coal
International Energy Agency (2023). Coal 2023: Analysis and Forecasts to 2026. IEA. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/a72a7ffa-c5f2-4ed8-a2bf-eb035931d95c/Coal_2023.pdf.
International Trade Administration (2021). Energy Resources Guide. International Trade Administration. https://www.trade.gov/energy-resource-guide-india-oil-and-gas#:~:text=India%20is%20the%20world's%20third,total%20refining%20capacity%20in%202021
Jack, V. (2024, December 6). EU bankrolling Putin with growing Russian fuel buys from India, report warns. Politico. https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-vladimir-putin-russia-fuel-imports-india-war-in-ukraine-price-cap-sanction/
JKempEnergy(2024). India poised to become largest driver of oil consumption. JKempEnergy. https://jkempenergy.com/2024/10/30/india-poised-to-become-largest-driver-of-oil-consumption/#:~:text=Chartbook:%20India%20oil%20consumption,Africa%20(12%20million%20tonnes)
Kippenberg, J (2024, July 10). Mining for the Energy Transition Needs to Respect Human Rights . Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/07/10/mining-energy-transition-needs-respect-human-rights
Kippenberg, J. (2024, July 10). Mining for the Energy Transition Needs to Respect Human Rights | Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/07/10/mining-energy-transition-needs-respect-human-rights
Kawoosa, v, Varghese, S & Achar, S. (2024, March 21). Top donors to Indian PM Modi's party include Vedanta, Reliance-affiliate, under opaque scheme. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/india/top-donors-indian-pm-modis-party-include-vedanta-reliance-affiliate-under-opaque-2024-03-21/
Kawoosa,V.J, Varghese, S, & Achar,A.(2024, March 21). Top donors to Indian PM Modi's party include Vedanta, Reliance-affiliate, under opaque scheme. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/india/top-donors-indian-pm-modis-party-include-vedanta-reliance-affiliate-under-opaque-2024-03-21/.
Lorentzen, P, Landry, P, & Yasuda, J. (2012, May 21). Impeding Authoritarian Transparency: How China’s Industrial Giants Hold Back Institutional Reform. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2064177
Mehrotra,K. (2023, February 26). In India “Phase down” means rapid expansion of coal mining. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/02/26/india-coal-mining-climate-change/.
McCrum, D, Cook, C, Harlow, M, & Sheppard, D. (2023, October 13). The mystery of the Adani coal imports that quietly doubled in value. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/7aadb3d7-4a03-44ba-a01e-8ddd8bce29ed
Mangnale, A. (2024, May 22). New Evidence Bolsters Allegations Adani Group Overcharged for Coal . Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project. https://www.occrp.org/en/investigation/new-evidence-bolsters-allegations-adani-group-overcharged-for-coal
Maguire, G. (2024, March 12). India's coal-fired electricity output & emissions hit record highs. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/indias-coal-fired-electricity-output-emissions-hit-record-highs-2024-03-12/
McCartney, M. (2024, August 23). China No Longer Top Buyer of Russian Oil. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/china-news-india-new-top-buyer-russian-oil-1943479
Ministry of Coal (2023). Coal and Lignite Resource. Ministry of Coal. https://coal.gov.in/en/major-statistics/coal-reserves
Naidu, J. (2024, October 28). What is the Hasdeo Arand mining issue, and why villagers clashed with the police. Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/hasdeo-arand-mining-issue-protest-9641436/
Narendra, M. (2024, April 1). X (Formerly Twitter). https://x.com/narendramodi/status/1774844651394228422?lang=en.
PBS News. (2023. April 6). Coal burning capacity climbs worldwide despite pledges to reduce use. PBS News. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/coal-burning-capacity-climbs-worldwide-despite-pledges-to-reduce-use#:~:text=New%20coal%20plants%20were%20added,all%20new%20coal%20project%20announcements.&text=China%20added%2026.8%20gigawatts%20and,plants%20in%20the%20past%20year
Pal, S. (2021, September 11). Dilution of Mining Norms: Linear Projects to be Considered Standalone. The Leaflet. https://theleaflet.in/environment/dilution-of-mining-norms-linear-projects-to-be-considered-stand
Ritchie, H & Roser, M (2020).CO₂ emissions. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions.
Ritchie, H. & Roser, M. (2024). How much CO₂ does the world emit? Which countries emit the most?. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions#:~:text=China%20is%2C%20by%20a%20significant,it's%20followed%20closely%20by%20Europe.
Rodríguez-Garavito. C & Kodiveri. A. (2023, September 27). Anti-green authoritarianism: Democratic backsliding on a heating planet. Open Global Rights. https://www.openglobalrights.org/anti-green-authoritarianism-democratic-backsliding-heating-planet/
Reuters Staff. (2024, November 27). China off track on emissions goals as energy demand offsets renewables push, researchers say. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-off-track-emissions-goals-energy-demand-offsets-renewables-push-2024-11-27/.
Rodríguez-Garavito, C & Kodiveri, A. (2023, September 27). Anti-green authoritarianism: Democratic backsliding on a heating planet. OpenGlobalRights. https://www.openglobalrights.org/anti-green-authoritarianism-democratic-backsliding-heating-planet/.
Ritchie, H, & Rosado,P. (2024). Which countries have the critical minerals needed for the energy transition?. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/countries-critical-minerals-needed-energy-transition.
Reuters Staff (2024, November 27). What you need to know about Adani's U.S. bribery indictment. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/india/what-you-need-know-about-adani-us-bribery-indictment-2024-11-27/
Singh, S. (2023, July 23). India planning $1.5 bln industrial water transport corridor in east- sources. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-planning-15-bln-industrial-water-transport-corridor-east-sources-2023-07-17/
SMM (2024, December 3). India's Mineral Production Rises in 2024-25 Fiscal Year's April-October Period. SMM. https://news.metal.com/newscontent/103069518
SMM.(2024, December 3). India's Mineral Production Rises in 2024-25 Fiscal Year's April-October Period. SMM. https://news.metal.com/newscontent/103069518.
The Hindu Staff (2024, November 10). Russian oil finds its way to Europe via India; India now biggest exporter of fuel to EU . The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/business/russian-oil-finds-its-way-to-europe-via-india-india-now-biggest-exporter-of-fuel-to-eu/article68852062.ece
Tirodkar, A. (2024, December 4). Can democracy trust EVMs? Frontline. https://frontline.thehindu.com/news/maharashtra-assembly-election-evm-controversy-markadwadi-village-paper-ballot-mahayuti-mva-ncp-prithviraj-chavan/article68945168.ece
Thakurta, O & Joshi, A (2024, October 29). How Modi has supported Adani’s global ambitions. Adani Watch. https://www.adaniwatch.org/how_modi_supported_adani_s_global_ambitions_at_india_s_expense
United Nations (2024). Causes and Effects of Climate Change. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/causes-effects-climate-change#:~:text=Fossil%20fuels%20%E2%80%93%20coal%2C%20oil%20and,forms%20of%20life%20on%20Earth
V-Dem Institute.(2024). Democracy Report 2024: Democracy Winning and Losing at the Ballot. V-Dem Institute. https://www.v-dem.net/documents/43/v-dem_dr2024_lowres.pdf.
Vickery, R. & Cutler, T. (2024, September 3). Commentary: Oil for India. The National Bureau of Asian Research. https://www.nbr.org/publication/oil-for-india/
Vladimirov, M. (2024, December 5). Navigating Sanctions: Laundered Russian Oil Finds Its Way Back to Europe from India. Center for the Study of Democracy. https://csd.eu/publications/publication/navigating-sanctions/
WRM Bulletin 246 (2019, November 25). India: Mining, Deforestation and Conservation Money. World Rainforest Movement. https://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin-articles/india-mining-deforestation-and-conservation-money
Wikipedia (2024). List of current Indian ruling and opposition parties. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_ruling_and_opposition_parties